Lycopene (molecular formula: C40H56) is a naturally occurring chemical that gives vegetables and fruits a red color. Tomatoes are the most concentrated food source of  lycopene, although papaya, apricots, watermelon, guava, and pink grapefruit are also important sources. 240 mL of tomato juice provides approximately 23 mg of lycopene. Research shows that lycopene can be absorbed more efficiently by the body after it has been processed into juice, sauce, paste, or ketchup. Eating lycopene-rich vegetables and fruits together with a small amount of oil or fat increases the amount of lycopene absorbed by the intestines.

Lycopene and Cancer Risk

Lycopene has been found to possess antioxidant and antiproliferative effects in animal and lab studies. Lycopene is the most common carotenoid in the human body and is one of the most strong carotenoid antioxidants. New researches show that a daily intake of 7-8 mg is enough to maintain sufficient levels of  lycopene to fight oxidative stress and prevent chronic diseases. “The shape of the lycopene molecule makes it very effective in being able to quench free radicals,” says Dr. Edward Giovannucci. “We don’t really understand it entirely yet, but lycopene may have specific properties that protect the cell in a way other antioxidants may not.”

Although the antioxidant activities of  lycopene are thought to be primarily responsible for its useful effects, evidence is accumulating to suggest other mechanisms such as modulation of  intercellular gap junction communication, hormonal and immune system and metabolic pathways may also be involved. Numerous studies (observational studies) correlate high intake of  lycopene-containing foods or high lycopene serum levels with reduced incidence of cancer. Findings is strongest forlycopene preventive effect against cancer of the prostate, stomach and lung. It may also help to preserve against cancer of  the breast, cervix, pancreas, esophagus, rectum and colon. Lycopene has been demonstrated to have other possible anti cancer activities particularly relating to modulation of intercellular communication and alterations in intracellular signalling pathways.

There is some findings that getting lycopene from foods (6.5 mg/day or more for women and 12 mg/day or more for men) reduces lung cancer risk in nonsmoking men aged 40 to 75, and nonsmoking women aged 30 to 55. The University of  Illinois found that comparing woman with the highest levels of  lycopene and those with the lowest demonstrated that the highest levels were 5 times less likely to have cervical cancer. In a study performed by the “China Medical University Department of  Nutrition“, the cancer-combating lycopene has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells. It accomplishes this by suppressing an significant signaling pathway that enables cancer cells to grow and survive. Dr. Yoav Sharoni of  Ben-Gurion University, explained that oral lycopene had a protective property against UV skin damage, which suggested a potential inverse connection between lycopene and skin cancer. He reported that while sunscreens provide external protection from damaging UV rays, antioxidants like lycopene in the diet might provide internal protection from sunburn.

Some researches in men with precancerous changes in their prostate shows that taking 4 mg of  lycopene supplements twice daily might delay or avoid progression to prostate cancer. In a prospective cohort study, an inverse association between lycopene levels and overall cancer risk was observed, suggesting that higher concentrations of  lycopene may help lower cancer risk overall. Men with the highest levels of serum lycopene had a 45% lower risk of cancer than did men with the lowest levels of lycopene. In a study, participants with HGPIN (high-grade prostate intraepithelial neoplasia) received 4 mg of  lycopene twice a day or no lycopene  for two years. A greater reduction in serum PSA (Prostat Spesifik Antijen) levels was observed in those treated with lycopene, compared with those who did not take the lycopene. During follow-up, adenocarcinomas were diagnosed more often in patients who had not received the lycopene than in people who had received lycopene. These results demonstrate that lycopene may be effective in preventing HGPIN from progressing to prostate cancer.

Astaxanthin (AST) is a xanthophyll carotenoid of usually marine origin, with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties showed in both experimental and human studies. It is found in living organisms especially in the marine environment where it is present in microalgae, plankton, krill and seafood. It gives trout, salmon, and crustaceans such as lobster and shrimp their distinctive reddish coloration.

Astaxanthin and Inflammation

Natural astaxanthin works to suppress varied inflammatory mediators. Astaxanthin not only affects the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2) pathway, it suppresses serum levels of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2), interleukin 1B (IL-1b), CRP (C Reactive Protein) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a), and all of this has been shown.

In one experiment done with mice and in-vitro, astaxanthin was proven to suppress tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a), interleukin 1B (IL-1b), prostaglandin E-2 (PGE-2), nitric oxide (NO) as well as the Cox-2 enzyme and nuclear factor kappa-B. In another study; found similar findings. Astaxanthin was shown in vitro to reduce the production of TNF-a, PGE-2 and nitric oxide. Two randomized, placebo-controlled study were performed on human volunteers to assess the effect of supplementation with an astaxanthin-rich algal extract on symptoms associated with the inflammatory diseases RA (rheumatoid arthritis) and  CTS (carpal tunnel syndrome). The results revealed that astaxanthin significantly relieve pain and improved performance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis; the results on carpal tunnel syndrome patients were similar.

The most common test for silent inflammation is a measurement of  blood levels of a substance called CRP (C-reactive protein). C-reactive protein is produced in the liver and in the coronary arteries, and is then released into the bloodstream when the body is fighting inflammation. In 2006, a clinical study analyzed the effects of astaxanthin on blood CRP levels. Sixteen participant received astaxanthin and nine received a placebo. Blood CRP levels were measured before the participants began the astaxanthin, and again at the end of the study. The study lasted for 8 weeks. At the end of the study, the treatment group experienced a 20 % diminution in CRP levels in 8 weeks, while the placebo group saw an increase in their levels. Another study on the effects of astaxanthin on CRP was reported in 2006. This study particularly used people with elevated CRP levels that would put them in a high risk category. After 3 months in the ongoing study, 43% of the astaxanthin group experienced enough of a diminution in their blood CRP levels to fall out of the high risk category and into the average risk group. Close to half of the participants returned their CRP levels from high risk to normal by supplementing their diets with astaxanthin.

Scientists explored the effect of a astaxanthin on the gripping strength of tennis elbow patients. The study involved 33 participants; the astaxanthin group (twenty-one people) and the placebo group (twelve people). After 8 weeks the treatment (astaxanthin) group displayed a remarkable improvement in average gripping force of 93%, and there was a reduction in self-assessed pain. A questionnaire answered by 247 users of astaxanthin supplementation demonstrated that more than 80% of those complaining on back pain and having symptoms of  rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis reported an improvement through the use of astaxanthin. The clinical study done on carpal tunnel syndrome sufferers was done with 20 participant, 13 in the treatment group and 7 in the placebo group over an 8 week period. The result demonstrated that the group taking astaxanthin reported a 27% diminution in daytime pain after four weeks and a 41% diminution after eightweeks. Also, the duration of daytime pain decreased by 21% after 4 weeks and 36% after 8 weeks. In a study featured 21 participants, 14 receiving astaxanthin and 7 receiving a placebo. Duration of the study was 8 weeks. The results demonstrated a important difference both in pain and satisfaction scores between the astaxanthin and control groups at the end of the study. Pain scores for the astaxanthin group reduction by about 10% after 4 weeks, and by more than 35% after 8 weeks. The investigators concluded that “Astaxanthin supplements appear to be an effective addition in the therapy of  rheumatoid arthritis and further studies should be carried out with a largerpopulation”.

Astaxanthin is a naturally occurring carotenoid found in nature primarily in marine organisms such as microalgae, trout, salmon, shrimp, krill, crayfish, and crustaceans. In nature, astaxanthin is usually found either conjugated to proteins, or esterified with fatty acids. The green microalga H. pluvialis is considered the richest source of astaxanthin. The microalga Haematococcus pluvialis has the highest capacity to accumulate astaxanthin up to 4-5% of cell dry weight.

Immune Enhancer and Anticancer Effects

Studies have demonstrated significant role played by natural carotenoids in regulating immunity and disease etiology. Astaxanthin, in animal-model research, enhances antibody production and even restores, in part, the decreased humoral immune response typical of older animals. Astaxanthin enhances the numbers and activity of  lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells that are responsible for creating the body’s innate immune response to invaders. “University of Minnesota” researchers find astaxanthin increases production of  T-cells and boosts antibody production. In Japan, scientists approve that astaxanthin action on T-cells activates the immune response to fight ailment and inhibits autoimmune reactions. One study by Japan’s “Osaka Kun-Ei Women’s College” studied the immunomodulating impact of a variety of carotenoids, including astaxanthin and beta-carotene, and found that even low concentrations of astaxanthin had more immune-boosting effect than either of the other carotenoids tested.

Research findings show that -astaxanthin works through many different pathways to support healthy immune function. In a double blind, placebo controlled clinical study, (Dr. Chew and his team) demonstrated that astaxanthin is a powerful immune system stimulator. The study demonstrated that astaxanthin;

•Significantly reduces DNA damage.

•Stimulates lymphocyte proliferation.

•Increases natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxic activity.

•Produces increased number of T-cells

•Enhances the total number of antibody producing B-cells

In a study examining astaxanthin’s impact on immune response, scientists from “Washington State University” divided 42 women into one of 3 groups: placebo, 2 mg astaxanthin, or 8 mg astaxanthin daily.  After 8 weeks of supplement, blood levels of astaxanthin in both astaxanthin groups were found to be significantly higher. Also, both levels of astaxanthin  improved activity of natural killer cells, which target. At the end of the study, the levels of a very significant marker of  DNA damage was found to be 32% and 43% less for the 2mg and 8mg groups as compared to the placebo group.

Astaxanthin was found to be an effectual anti-tumor agent in a series of studies on mice and rats at the Gifu University School of  Medicine in Japan. In a study found that astaxanthin significantly decreased both the incidence and the proliferation of chemically-induced bladder cancer in mice. In March 2010, researchers at “Washington State University” showed that astaxanthin inhibits cancer cell growth by decreasing free radical-induced cellular damage, reducing inflammation and increasing immune response. The effect of astaxanthin to inhibit the growth of colon cancer cells was investigated at “Catholic University School of Medicine“. Astaxanthin resulted in a 220% enhance in the expression of the anti-cancer gene p 53, and a 160% and 250% enhance respectively in the anti-cancer genes p21 and p27.

In 1995, researchers demonstrated that astaxanthin prevents oral cancer in rats, and inhibits cancer in a manner more pronounced than that of  beta carotene. Astaxanthin showed 98% inhibition of  5alpha-reductase at 300 microg/mL in vitro. Inhibition of 5alpha-reductase has been reported to reduce the symptoms of  BPH (benign prostate hyperplasia) and probably inhibit or help treat prostate cancer. In one study, scientists transplanted tumor cells into mice and found that astaxanthin inhibited the growth of  the cancerous tumors in a dose-dependent fashion. In another study; was found that when astaxanthin supplementation was started both at 1 week and also at 3 weeks prior to the tumor inoculation, growth was inhibited. But, when the supplement with astaxanthin began at the same time as the tumor inoculation, the efficacy was not found. The result of this study was that astaxanthin may work better in the early stages of tumor development. Another mouse study, at “Washington State University”, demonstrated astaxanthin inhibits the growth of mammary tumors in mice by modulating tumor latency and exerting antioxidant properties.

H.pylori (Helicobacter pylori) is the bacteria responsible for most ulcers and many cases of stomach inflammation. H. pylori infection is most likely spread by consuming food or water contaminated with fecal matter. Approximately 50% of the world population is estimated to have detectable H. pylori in their gastrointestinal tract. Helicobacter pylori infection in humans is characterized by a marked infiltration of neutrophilic leukocytes of the gastric mucosa, and the generation of  ROMs (reactive oxygen metabolites) may play a part in the development of serious chronic type B gastritis.

Astaxanthin for Helicobacter pylori Infection

Astaxanthin acts as an antioxidant that protects against tissue damage induced by reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs), and it may also inhibit infection through an altered immune response. Because astaxanthin can change the immune response, it is many effective at reducing Helicobacter pylori which can help prevent some types of gastric cancer and other stomach problems. Some researches have shown that potent T helper 1 (Th1) cellular immune responses contribute to Helicobacter-associated gastritis and that Th2 T lymphocytes producing interleukin 4 decrease the bacterial load of  H. felis-infected mice.  In a study, the researcher states that “ experimental studies, both in vivo and in vitro, have shown that astaxanthin and vitamin C are not only free radical scavengers but also show antimicrobial activity against H. pylori”. It has been shown that astaxanthin changes the immune response to Helicobacter pylori by shifting the Th1 response towards a Th2 T-cell response.

In a study published in Dec 1999 edition of  Immunology Letters; researchers studiedthe effect of astaxanthin on inflammation in mice infected with Helicobacter pylori. They discovered that mice consuming a cell extract containing astaxanthin experienced reduces in gastric inflammation. A high intake of carotenoids and vitamin C has been proposed to avoid development of gastric malignancies. In a study, performed at the University of  Lund in Sweden, mice infected with Helicobacter pylori were given daily therapies for 10 days of either algal meal rich in astaxanthin of different potencies (10, 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight), 400 mg/kg vitamin C. After one and ten days post-treatment, both the  vitamin C and astaxanthin groups demonstrated significantly lower H. pylori colonization levels and lower inflammation scores than controls, with astaxanthin showing a dose-dependent response. In a clinical study conducted in 1999, involved 10 H. pylori positive people (non-ulcer) with typical dyspeptic symptoms such as heartburn and gastric pain, were each treated with 40 mg daily dose of astaxanthin for 21 days. The gastric pain, heartburn and total clinical symptoms results demonstrated a important drop of 66%, 78% and 52% drop respectively. In this study, various doses of astaxanthin (16 mg or 40 mg) were compared to placebo in a group of 132 participant with dyspepsia over a 4-week period. The higher dosage of astaxanthin significantly decreased the symptoms of  heartburn and this effect was most pronounced in the people found to be infected with Helicobacter pylori.

Astaxanthin, a red-orange carotenoid pigment, is strong biological antioxidant that occurs naturally in a wide variety of living organisms. Astaxanthin is quite common in nature, particularly in the marine environment and is best known for eliciting the pinkish-red hue to the flesh of salmon and trout,  as well as crayfish, shrimp, and lobsters. Although natural sources of astaxanthin are numerous, nearly all are found in very low concentrations. By far, the green algae Haematococcus pluvialis provides the most concentrated natural source of astaxanthin known, from 10,000-40,000 ppm astaxanthin in addition to other carotenoids such as beta-carotene, canthaxanthin and lutein.

Astaxanthin Antioxidant Benefits

Astaxanthin provides cell membranes with  strong protection against free radical or other oxidative attack. Astaxanthin, are distinguished by their capacity to interact with chemically reactive species of oxygen known as singlet oxygen and free radicals. Deleterious reactive oxygen species such as singlet oxygen, superoxide, peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals are commonly formed as a consequence of photooxidation, physiological stress and normal immune system functions. Astaxanthin, protect cells against oxidation by quenching singlet oxygen and dissipating the energy as heat and, scavenging free radicals to prevent and terminate chain reactions. Astaxanthin is superior to other antioxidants because of the unique role it may play in protecting the cell membrane because of its unique chemical structure and orientation within the living cell.

Astaxanthin’s antioxidant activities, both as a quencher of singlet oxygen and a scavenger of free radicals; its capability to protect lipids from peroxidation; and its strong effect on prevention DNA damage, have been clearly showed. In vitro and in vivo studies have showed the antioxidant efficacy of  astaxanthin and its advantages in the prevention and/or therapy of oxidative stress-related neurodegenerative diseases and cardio-vascular diseases, as well as in protecting the skin and eyes from UV-induced damage.

New researches show that astaxanthin is much more effective than beta-carotene against the singlet oxygen free radical. Vitamin E is another key lipid-soluble antioxidant for the body. Astaxanthin has been shown to be 100-500 times stronger than vitamin E in preventing lipid peroxidation in rat- mitochondria. A research reported in 1990 in the Physiological Chemistry and Physics showed that astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells and boosting immunity.

Astaxanthin provides protection from more types of free radicals than many other antioxidants. Also, research has proven that astaxanthin is able to cross the blood-brain barrier and the central nervous system better than many other antioxidants. This feature allows its benefits to reach and protect the eyes and brain from free radical damage. In lab studies, astaxanthin protects retinal cells against oxidative stress and significantly decreases the area of destructive new blood vessel growth on retinas, a hallmark of advanced macular degeneration. According to a study published in February 2009 in the Chemical Research Toxicology; astaxanthin may decrease the risk of developing cataracts. In a study showed that astaxanthin is effective in preventing ameliorating retinal injury and the degeneration of photoreceptors due to ageing. In another study  that subjects who received 5 mg astaxanthin per day for one month showed a %54 reduction of eye fatigue complaints.

Some researches demonstrate that astaxanthin may be a candidate to treat neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson and Alzheimer disease. Astaxanthin exhibits exceptionally potent free-radical scavenging activity, and protects cells, organs and body tissues from oxidative damage. Research conducted by Japanese scientists shows that astaxanthin prevents the build-up of dangerous compounds linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s. In a small study 10 healthy men ages 50-69, who had been complaining of  forgetfulness, received astaxanthin (12 mg/day) for twelve weeks. On a computerized test designed to accurately  detect early cognitive deterioration, they demonstrated development on measures of reaction time, attention, and working memory. Scientists from “Tohoku University” have concluded that of the natural pigment astaxanthin lowers the  accumulation of compounds called PLOO (phospholipid hydroperoxides) which are known to accumulate  abnormally in the erythrocytes (red blood cells) of individuals with dementia. The placebo-controlled study demonstrated that PLOOH levels in erythrocytes fell substantially in the group taking the astaxanthin  decreasing 40% and 50% in the 6 and 12 mg dose groups, respectively, compared with no change in the placebo group.

Studies indicate that 6 mg/day of astaxanthin for six-eight weeks decreases crow’s feet wrinkles, water loss, and age spot size while enhancing moisture content, elasticity, and skin texture in both women and men, particularly when combined with topical astaxanthin application. Astaxanthin may help protect skin from UV damage from sunlight, particularly during prolonged exposure. In human studies, astaxanthin has been shown to decrease visible signs of  UV-aging through both topical and dietary supplement within 4 to 6 weeks of use. A double-blind placebo controlled study demonstrated that astaxanthin in combination with vitamin E (tocotrienol), improved several aspects of overall skin condition. In a study human dermal fibroblasts were pre-incubated with astaxanthin and other antioxidants and then exposed to singlet oxygen. Cell viability was restored to more than 80 percent when the cells were treated with astaxanthin. Another study; shows in healthy males that topical natural astaxanthin significantly reduces burn level by 60% at 98 hours after UVB exposure.